Zoroastrian Funeral Traditions: The Tower of Silence and Modern Practice

A traditional Zoroastrian funeral, often called a Parsi funeral in India, does not use burial or cremation. The body is placed in a dakhma, a Tower of Silence, and left exposed to the sun and to birds, because Zoroastrian tradition treats a corpse as impure and protects earth, fire and water from it. Towers are used mainly in India, and a collapse in vulture numbers has forced the community to look for new solutions.

Why do Zoroastrians avoid burial and cremation?

In Zoroastrian tradition, a corpse is believed to be seized at death by Nasu, a demon of corpse contamination that appears as a fly. Earth, fire and water are regarded as sacred, so putting a corpse in the ground or in the flame would defile them. Exposure to sun and scavenging birds is the traditional answer. It is why Zoroastrians historically avoided burial and cremation.

That is the traditional rule. In practice, families and communities today make different choices, and not all agree on what is acceptable. If you are supporting a Zoroastrian family, ask what they plan rather than assuming.

What is a Tower of Silence?

A dakhma is an open, circular stone structure with a nearly flat roof. Inside, the surface is divided into three concentric rings, with men on the outer ring, women in the middle and children in the innermost. Bones are collected in a central pit, where they break down further and are filtered through coal and sand. Mumbai's first tower is dated to 1672.

Only specially designated corpse-bearers, called nusessalars (from an Avestan phrase meaning "pollutant caretakers"), are permitted to enter the ritual precinct.

What happens at a Zoroastrian funeral?

The details differ between communities and priests, and what follows is only the main outline. Ask the family's priest for the specifics.

1. The sagdid. A dog is brought to look at the body, ideally before anyone else touches it. Texts describe the traditional dog as one with tan markings above the eyes (the "four-eyed" dog). The ritual is understood as driving the corpse impurity away, confirming that death has occurred and limiting infection.
2. Carrying the body to the tower. The corpse-bearers handle the body, and the priests and community recite prayers according to their custom.
3. Exposure. The body is left in the tower, where the sun and birds return it to nature.
4. Mourning and prayers. Families and priests observe prayers and mourning customs afterwards, and the exact length and form vary by community, so ask the family's priest.

According to the Vendidad, the soul's fate is decided at dawn on the third night after death at the Chinvat Bridge. The Bridge is where the soul is judged on its conduct, and for the righteous it widens, leading to the House of Song.

Why are the vultures disappearing?

India's vulture population has collapsed. Reference sources report a decline of more than 97% by 2008 across the Indian subcontinent, mostly from poisoning by diclofenac, a veterinary painkiller given to cattle, which India restricted in 2006. For some species the decline is reported to be as high as 99.9%. The few surviving birds are often unable to consume bodies fully.

Parsi communities have looked at captive breeding of vultures and at solar concentrators, which are large mirrors that speed up drying of the body. By their nature, concentrators work only in clear weather and are less effective than vultures, which once cleared a body in minutes. What is happening at a particular tower today can change, so ask the local Parsi community association or check a current news report if it matters to you.

Who can use or visit a tower?

Towers are controlled by community associations (anjumans). They set the rules on who may use a tower, and some restrict use for the children of mixed marriages. Non-members may not enter, and visitors are typically shown a scale model.

The Zoroastrian community in India is small. The 2011 census counted 57,264 Parsis in India, down from 114,890 in 1941, and 97.1% of them lived in cities, with Mumbai the main centre.

What do Zoroastrians do outside India?

Exposure is practised mainly in the Indian subcontinent. The Yazd tower in Iran was last used in 1974. Elsewhere, including the US, families have to use a lawful method such as burial or cremation, and opinions within the community differ about which, if either, is acceptable. The Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America (FEZANA) lists local member associations, and a local priest or association is the best guide to rites for a particular family.

If you are arranging a funeral that mixes traditions, our guide to interfaith funeral planning can help. For other traditions that avoid or limit burial and cremation, see our guides to Buddhist funeral traditions (including Tibetan sky burial) and cultural funeral considerations.

How to support a Zoroastrian family

• Ask first. Because customs and community rules differ, ask the family what they want rather than assuming.
• Follow their lead. Access to prayers and rites is set by the family and the community, so wait to be invited.
• Offer help that does not depend on ritual. Meals, errands and a note of sympathy are welcome in any tradition. See our guide to funeral etiquette.
• Charity as a tribute. A donation in the person's name may be appreciated, but ask the family first.